There are two critical types of self-esteem: trait and state self-esteem. Trait self-esteem is stable, while state self-esteem can vary significantly depending on the context and recent experiences  (Baumeister et al., 2003; Kernis, 2005).

High self-esteem is generally associated with positive psychological health, including happiness, optimism, and resilience in the face of adversity (Mann, Hosman, Schaalma, & de Vries, 2004). However, it should be noted that while high self-esteem is generally beneficial, excessively high self-esteem or narcissism can lead to problems such as interpersonal conflicts and a lack of empathy (Bushman & Baumeister, 2002).

On the other hand, low self-esteem has been associated with various mental health issues, including depression, anxiety, and eating disorders (Sowislo & Orth, 2013).

Psychology Research Findings

Psychology research on self-esteem has significantly advanced our understanding of mental health. Rosenberg (1965) defines self-esteem as a person's overall sense of value or worth. Early research by Coopersmith (1967) argued that self-esteem was pivotal to mental health, a concept significantly refined and expanded by subsequent studies. For instance, Orth, Robins, and Widaman (2012) demonstrated a strong link between self-esteem and mental health, with high self-esteem associated with lower risks of depression and anxiety. 

Furthermore, Orth, Robins, and Roberts (2008) found that self-esteem is relatively stable but can change significantly in response to certain life events, impacting mental health. Research has also shown the predictive capability of self-esteem in adolescence for adult mental health, with Steiger, Allemand, Robins, and Fend (2014) showing that adolescents with low self-esteem were more likely to develop mental health issues in adulthood. Thus, research on self-esteem has profoundly influenced our understanding of the genesis, progression, and potential intervention points for mental health issues.

Self-esteem plays a crucial role in mental health: Numerous studies have confirmed the link between self-esteem and mental health. High self-esteem is consistently associated with a lower risk for depression, anxiety, and other mental health issues (Orth, Robins, & Widaman, 2012).

Self-esteem is relatively stable but can change significantly in response to certain life events: Major life events, such as a significant achievement or a traumatic incident, can profoundly affect a person's self-esteem. However, for most people, self-esteem tends to be relatively stable over time (Orth, Robins, & Roberts, 2008).

Self-esteem in adolescence predicts future mental health: Research shows that self-esteem during adolescence can significantly predict mental health later in life. Adolescents with low self-esteem are more likely to develop mental health problems in adulthood (Steiger, Allemand, Robins, & Fend, 2014).

Culture influences self-esteem: Cultural factors can significantly influence self-esteem. For example, individualistic cultures tend to have higher self-esteem than collectivist cultures (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999).

How does low self-esteem impact your life and relationships? 

Low self-esteem can significantly negatively impact various aspects of life, including personal well-being, relationships, and professional performance.

Impact on Personal Well-being

People with low self-esteem often have a negative self-concept and may be more prone to mental health issues such as depression and anxiety (Orth, Robins, & Roberts, 2008). They may also be more vulnerable to stress and less likely to engage in health-promoting behaviors (Mann et al., 2004).

Impact on Relationships

Low self-esteem can affect interpersonal relationships in various ways. It can lead to a pattern of negative expectations and perceptions about others' attitudes towards oneself, which may result in a self-fulfilling prophecy of relationship problems (Murray, Rose, Bellavia, Holmes, & Kusche, 2002). People with low self-esteem may also fear intimacy and are likelier to avoid or withdraw from close relationships, leading to unfulfilled ones (Downey et al., 1998).

Impact on Professional Performance

In a professional context, low self-esteem can inhibit job performance and career advancement. Individuals with low self-esteem may undervalue their capabilities, thus underperforming or avoiding taking on challenges that could lead to professional growth (Judge & Bono, 2001).

Building Self-Esteem in Psychotherapy

Therapists use a variety of approaches to help clients build self-esteem. These strategies are often incorporated into broader therapeutic modalities, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), person-centered therapy, and mindfulness-based interventions.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): CBT is one of the most widely researched and effective therapies for various issues, including low self-esteem. This therapy helps clients identify and challenge negative self-perceptions and develop healthier and more accurate beliefs about themselves (Beck, 2011). Techniques may include cognitive restructuring (changing negative thoughts), behavioral activation (engaging in activities that improve mood and self-esteem), and assertiveness training.

Self-Compassion Practices: Another approach involves fostering self-compassion, which is treating oneself with kindness, recognizing one's shared humanity, and being mindful when considering negative aspects of oneself. Neff and Germer (2013) developed the Mindful Self-Compassion program, which has been shown to increase self-esteem and decrease self-criticism.

Strength-Based Approaches: Therapists often use strength-based approaches to help clients identify, explore, and utilize their personal strengths. The positive psychology movement, led by researchers such as Seligman, emphasizes the importance of focusing on positive traits and skills, which can boost self-esteem (Seligman et al., 2005).

Narrative Therapy: Narrative therapy, which involves helping clients to rewrite the narrative of their lives in a more positive and empowering way, can also help to build self-esteem (White & Epston, 1990). This approach helps clients view themselves as separate from their problems, enabling them to recognize their resilience and agency.

Future Trends in Self-Esteem Research

These are just some possible future directions of research into self-esteem research:

Neurobiological Basis of Self-esteem: While psychological and environmental factors influencing self-esteem are well-studied, biological underpinnings are still emerging. Future research could focus on how neurobiological factors, like brain structure and function, hormones, and genetics, impact self-esteem. Questions being asked include: What are the neural correlates of self-esteem? How do genetics and epigenetics influence self-esteem?

Cross-cultural Aspects of Self-esteem: Given globalization and increasing cultural diversity, understanding how culture impacts self-esteem has become crucial. While some studies have been done (e.g., Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), many questions remain. How do different cultures construct and experience self-esteem? What role does acculturation play in self-esteem among immigrant populations?

Self-esteem and Digital Media: The digital age, especially social media, likely plays a significant role in shaping self-esteem, particularly among young people. Researchers will likely be asking: What is the impact of social media on self-esteem? How does cyberbullying affect self-esteem? What is the influence of "selfie" culture on self-perception and self-esteem?

Interventions for Improving Self-esteem: While many interventions exist, much remains to learn about the most effective ways to improve self-esteem and how these changes impact broader mental health outcomes. Key questions include: Which therapeutic approaches are most effective for enhancing self-esteem? How can these strategies be personalized for individual needs? Can we develop preventative strategies to foster healthy self-esteem in childhood and adolescence?

Self-esteem and Intersectionality: Researchers will likely explore how different aspects of an individual's identity (like race, gender, sexuality, and socioeconomic status) influence self-esteem. Questions here could include: How does intersectionality impact self-esteem? How do experiences of discrimination or privilege shape an individual's self-worth?

Summary

Self-esteem is a crucial aspect of an individual's mental health, referring to their subjective emotional evaluation of their worth. This complex construct consists of beliefs and associated emotions about oneself, categorized as either trait self-esteem (stable) or state self-esteem (variable), as explained by Kernis (2005). High self-esteem tends to correlate with positive psychological health, whereas excessively high self-esteem can lead to interpersonal conflicts and a lack of empathy. In contrast, low self-esteem is linked with mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and eating disorders (Sowislo & Orth, 2013). 

Seminal research by Coopersmith (1967), Orth, Robins, Widaman (2012), and others underscores self-esteem's pivotal role in mental health, its influence by life events, and its predictive power for future mental health from adolescence. This research has significantly advanced our understanding of mental health issues, highlighting potential intervention points. Individuals with low self-esteem often exhibit negative impacts on personal well-being, interpersonal relationships, and professional performance. Therapeutic approaches to bolster self-esteem encompass cognitive-behavioral therapy, self-compassion practices, strength-based approaches, and narrative therapy. All of these offer various strategies for individuals to build healthier and more accurate beliefs about themselves, fostering improved self-esteem and overall mental health.

References

Downey, G., Freitas, A. L., Michaelis, B., & Khouri, H. (1998). The self-fulfilling prophecy in close relationships: rejection sensitivity and rejection by romantic partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(2), 545-560.

Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review, 106(4), 766–794. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.766

Judge, T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2001). Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 80-92.

Mann, M., Hosman, C. M., Schaalma, H. P., & de Vries, N. K. (2004). Self-esteem in a broad-spectrum approach for mental health promotion. Health Education Research, 19(4), 357-372.

Murray, S. L., Rose, P., Bellavia, G. M., Holmes, J. G., & Kusche, A. G. (2002). When rejection stings: how self-esteem constrains relationship-enhancement processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(3), 556-573.

Orth, U., Robins, R. W., & Roberts, B. W. (2008). Low self-esteem prospectively predicts depression in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(3), 695-708.

Orth, U., Robins, R. W., & Widaman, K. F. (2012). Life-span development of self-esteem and its effects on important life outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1271–1288. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025558

Steiger, A. E., Allemand, M., Robins, R. W., & Fend, H. A. (2014). Low and decreasing self-esteem during adolescence predict adult depression two decades later. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(2), 325–338. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035133